Hinduism
Hinduism is a combination of traditional Indian practices and also a history of thousands of years. There is no established founder of the religion and neither is there an official canon of sacred texts or scripture. The main feature of Hinduism is therefore its religious diversity.
For Hindus, belief in God is the starting point in a person’s spiritual journey. Hindus believe it is important to accept the teachings of the scriptures (shruti) and then test and translate them in daily life (yukti). It is believed this will lead to a first-hand experience of God, or swanubhuti.
Brahman is the Hindu belief of the spirit underpinning the world. Within humans this spirit is referred to as Atman, or the soul. In the Hindu tradition dharma is the searching for that which holds everything together.
Hindus also believe in samsara or reincarnation, the cycle of rebirth, a cycle that only ends when a person discovers his or her essential nature as the spirit. This is called moksha.
Another key belief linked to the theory of reincarnation is the law of karma, which is the law of cause and effect. Karma states that what we set into motion has a habit of catching up with us. The idea of ahimsa or the principle of non-violence is central in this as hurting others amounts to hurting ourselves. Humans have to bear the consequences of what they do, if not in this life, then in the next life.
For Hindus, belief in God is the starting point in a person’s spiritual journey. Hindus believe it is important to accept the teachings of the scriptures (shruti) and then test and translate them in daily life (yukti). It is believed this will lead to a first-hand experience of God, or swanubhuti.
Brahman is the Hindu belief of the spirit underpinning the world. Within humans this spirit is referred to as Atman, or the soul. In the Hindu tradition dharma is the searching for that which holds everything together.
Hindus also believe in samsara or reincarnation, the cycle of rebirth, a cycle that only ends when a person discovers his or her essential nature as the spirit. This is called moksha.
Another key belief linked to the theory of reincarnation is the law of karma, which is the law of cause and effect. Karma states that what we set into motion has a habit of catching up with us. The idea of ahimsa or the principle of non-violence is central in this as hurting others amounts to hurting ourselves. Humans have to bear the consequences of what they do, if not in this life, then in the next life.
Hindus are polytheistic but also believe that god is one being that can be worshipped in many different forms. There are three major gods who are associated with creation, preservation and destruction:
›Brahma – creative force of the universe who is at the centre of collective worship. Brahma is often represented as an old, thoughtful king with four arms and four faces that look in all directions.
›Vishnu – god of light and warmth, preserver of order and harmony. Vishnu is often depicted lying on a many-headed cobra which symbolises cosmic energy and time.
›Shiva – destroys and re-creates the universe. He most frequently appears as a bronze statue where Shiva stands on a dwarf demon and dances. In the images Shiva has four arms and long hair.
The three main Hindu groups are:
›Vaishnavites, or those who follow the god Vishnu or his incarnations Rama and Krishna.
›Shaivites who think of god as Shiva,
›Shaktas who believe in the ultimate reality as the mother goddess called Shakti.
›Brahma – creative force of the universe who is at the centre of collective worship. Brahma is often represented as an old, thoughtful king with four arms and four faces that look in all directions.
›Vishnu – god of light and warmth, preserver of order and harmony. Vishnu is often depicted lying on a many-headed cobra which symbolises cosmic energy and time.
›Shiva – destroys and re-creates the universe. He most frequently appears as a bronze statue where Shiva stands on a dwarf demon and dances. In the images Shiva has four arms and long hair.
The three main Hindu groups are:
›Vaishnavites, or those who follow the god Vishnu or his incarnations Rama and Krishna.
›Shaivites who think of god as Shiva,
›Shaktas who believe in the ultimate reality as the mother goddess called Shakti.
The four classes of Hinduism
Traditionally Indian society has been
divided into four classes, or varnas, that are based on people’s occupations.
The caste system is considered to be part of the cosmic order and sacred. If a person lives a good life then he or she
will be reborn in a higher caste. The four castes are:
›Brahmins – the priestly caste. Brahmins maintain ritual purity by not eating meat or drinking alcohol. They perform Vedic rituals, teach, study the scriptures, perform sacrifices, and give/receive gifts.
›Kshatriyas – the warrior caste. The Kshatriyas protect others and were originally part of the aristocracy.
›Vaishyas – merchants and artisans. Their duty is to breed cattle, till the earth, and trade in goods. Vaishya males can in their youth take part in a special rite of passage and receive a sacred thread.
›Shudras – labourers and peasants. The Shudra are expected to serve the higher classes. They are considered ritually unclean and so cannot study the scriptures.
Outside of the four classes are the Untouchables or outcasts. These people are considered to be so low that they do not even rank within the class system. They are separated from pure-caste Hindus in order not to pollute them. The list of offences that Untouchables may commit include – living in a village, coming too close or casting a shadow on a caste Hindu, gaining wealth or owning property, wearing clean clothes, and taking water from the village well.
›Brahmins – the priestly caste. Brahmins maintain ritual purity by not eating meat or drinking alcohol. They perform Vedic rituals, teach, study the scriptures, perform sacrifices, and give/receive gifts.
›Kshatriyas – the warrior caste. The Kshatriyas protect others and were originally part of the aristocracy.
›Vaishyas – merchants and artisans. Their duty is to breed cattle, till the earth, and trade in goods. Vaishya males can in their youth take part in a special rite of passage and receive a sacred thread.
›Shudras – labourers and peasants. The Shudra are expected to serve the higher classes. They are considered ritually unclean and so cannot study the scriptures.
Outside of the four classes are the Untouchables or outcasts. These people are considered to be so low that they do not even rank within the class system. They are separated from pure-caste Hindus in order not to pollute them. The list of offences that Untouchables may commit include – living in a village, coming too close or casting a shadow on a caste Hindu, gaining wealth or owning property, wearing clean clothes, and taking water from the village well.
Untouchables must accept what wages they
are given by Hindu farmers as they are unable to own their own land. They have
no rights and their position is passed down through the family (hereditary
basis). The treatment of the Untouchables is justified by the law of karma,
where the position you hold in life is a direct result of your previous life.
Although untouchability was made illegal in India in 1948, the situation for Untouchables remains unchanged in many ways (Goldburg, 2009, p.201).
Although untouchability was made illegal in India in 1948, the situation for Untouchables remains unchanged in many ways (Goldburg, 2009, p.201).
Ritual
The Hindu religion has sixteen life-cycle rituals, called samskaras, that mark key moments in the life of a Hindu. There are over forty samskaras, sixteen of which are described in the Hindu sacred texts.
Birth Rituals
Nine of the sixteen samskaras are performed as part of the birth and infancy rituals in Hinduism. The samskaras begin with the new bride’s first fertile period and finish when a child is nearing three years of age.
First samskara: performed during the bride’s first fertile period. Participants offer food to the gods and chant an appropriate mantra.
Second samskara: performed during the second or third month of pregnancy. The ritual expresses the couple’s desire to have a male child. Drops of banyan juice are placed on the mother’s right nostril to inhale. The pregnant woman must also eat yoghurt and grains.
Third samskara: performed during the sixth or eighth month of pregnancy. The husband parts his wife’s hair three times using a special comb. From then on the pregnant woman is careful about her diet, and tries to rest. The husband must refrain from having his hair cut, and must not take part in pilgrimages or funeral rites.
Fourth samskara: after the birth of the child the father writes the sacred Aum symbol on the lips or tongue of the child with honey. The marks the child as a new member of the Hindu faith. The father also whispers a secret name into the child’s ear.
Fifth samskara: after a time of ritual impurity the mother bathes and is given new clothes. The house is filled with flowers and the naming ceremony takes place. The father shaves to symbolise
the removal of pollution. A horoscope is cast by a priest to determine the first letter of the baby’s name. The father then writes the family deity, followed by the child’s date of birth, and the proposed name. The father whispers the baby’s name into its right ear.
Sixth samskara: at four months of age the child is taken outside of the house for the first time. The baby is shown the sun and the moon, and is turned to face north. A sacred fire is lit and a mantra is chanted. The ceremony must be completed in one day.
Seventh samskara: performed after the child has its first solid food. The mantras used in the ceremony focus on good health and good digestion.
Eighth samskara: performed during the first three Years of the child’s life. The father cuts the child’s hair to show spiritual cleanliness. The child’s head Is then shaved prior to the bathing.
Ninth samskara: the final ritual involves the piercing of the child’s ears to symbolise the opening up to truth.
The Hindu religion has sixteen life-cycle rituals, called samskaras, that mark key moments in the life of a Hindu. There are over forty samskaras, sixteen of which are described in the Hindu sacred texts.
Birth Rituals
Nine of the sixteen samskaras are performed as part of the birth and infancy rituals in Hinduism. The samskaras begin with the new bride’s first fertile period and finish when a child is nearing three years of age.
First samskara: performed during the bride’s first fertile period. Participants offer food to the gods and chant an appropriate mantra.
Second samskara: performed during the second or third month of pregnancy. The ritual expresses the couple’s desire to have a male child. Drops of banyan juice are placed on the mother’s right nostril to inhale. The pregnant woman must also eat yoghurt and grains.
Third samskara: performed during the sixth or eighth month of pregnancy. The husband parts his wife’s hair three times using a special comb. From then on the pregnant woman is careful about her diet, and tries to rest. The husband must refrain from having his hair cut, and must not take part in pilgrimages or funeral rites.
Fourth samskara: after the birth of the child the father writes the sacred Aum symbol on the lips or tongue of the child with honey. The marks the child as a new member of the Hindu faith. The father also whispers a secret name into the child’s ear.
Fifth samskara: after a time of ritual impurity the mother bathes and is given new clothes. The house is filled with flowers and the naming ceremony takes place. The father shaves to symbolise
the removal of pollution. A horoscope is cast by a priest to determine the first letter of the baby’s name. The father then writes the family deity, followed by the child’s date of birth, and the proposed name. The father whispers the baby’s name into its right ear.
Sixth samskara: at four months of age the child is taken outside of the house for the first time. The baby is shown the sun and the moon, and is turned to face north. A sacred fire is lit and a mantra is chanted. The ceremony must be completed in one day.
Seventh samskara: performed after the child has its first solid food. The mantras used in the ceremony focus on good health and good digestion.
Eighth samskara: performed during the first three Years of the child’s life. The father cuts the child’s hair to show spiritual cleanliness. The child’s head Is then shaved prior to the bathing.
Ninth samskara: the final ritual involves the piercing of the child’s ears to symbolise the opening up to truth.
Adolescence
Three samskaras take place during adolescence. The first is the sacred thread ceremony, which is only available to boys from the three upper castes in Hindu society.
At the sacred thread ceremony the boy is given the yajnopaveet (sacred thread) that is made up of three strands. The strands symbolise the obligations he must now follow:
1.Rishi Rin: to promote knowledge
2.Pitri Rin: to look after and respect his parents and ancestors
3.Dev Rin: to contribute to society and the nation.
During the ceremony the boy’s head is shaved, except for a tuft of hair on the crown. The boy then bathes and puts on white clothing. The boy shares a meal with his mother before she leaves the ceremony.
The boy then faces west and blessings are chanted. Food offerings are made and the boy is given new clothes. A piece of deer skin on a loop of cotton is placed around his neck the three strands of white cotton are then tied with a sacred knot and hung diagonally across the boy’s chest. The sacred threads are worn for the rest of the boy’s life and is renewed each year in a special ceremony.
Three samskaras take place during adolescence. The first is the sacred thread ceremony, which is only available to boys from the three upper castes in Hindu society.
At the sacred thread ceremony the boy is given the yajnopaveet (sacred thread) that is made up of three strands. The strands symbolise the obligations he must now follow:
1.Rishi Rin: to promote knowledge
2.Pitri Rin: to look after and respect his parents and ancestors
3.Dev Rin: to contribute to society and the nation.
During the ceremony the boy’s head is shaved, except for a tuft of hair on the crown. The boy then bathes and puts on white clothing. The boy shares a meal with his mother before she leaves the ceremony.
The boy then faces west and blessings are chanted. Food offerings are made and the boy is given new clothes. A piece of deer skin on a loop of cotton is placed around his neck the three strands of white cotton are then tied with a sacred knot and hung diagonally across the boy’s chest. The sacred threads are worn for the rest of the boy’s life and is renewed each year in a special ceremony.
Marriage
Marriage in the Hindu faith is an alliance between two families (Goldburg, 2009, p.34). In the past marriages were arranged but in contemporary society couples are often guided by their parents or families rather than having their marriage arranged.
When a couple decides to get married a priest consults their horoscopes to ensure a good day for the ceremony, which normally takes place in the bride’s home.
On the wedding day the bride and groom are dressed elaborately, and the bride’s hands and feet are decorated with intricate patterns marked by henna.
The ceremony begins with prayers to Ganesha, and the bride’s family welcome the groom with flowers and perfumed water. The bride’s family also apply the tilak to the groom’s forehead. Once the ceremony begins the groom is brought forward to a specially decorated altar when he sits. He is offered a ritual drink of milk, ghee yoghurt and honey. The bride is then brought forward by her father and given to the groom. Gifts are exchanged and the priest lights the sacred fire. The couple make an offering as mantras are chanted.
The bride’s sari is then tied to the groom’s scarf. The couple exchange vows and offer rice to the sacred fire.
The bride steps on a stone to symbolise her willingness and strength to overcome any difficulties that may arise. The ritual comes to a climax when the bride and groom take seven steps around the sacred fire and recite prayers for food, power, prosperity, wisdom, children, health and friendship.
Barley is poured into the couple’s hand to symbolise that they will work together. The husband then marks the part in his wife’s hair with red powder as a sign that she is married.
Blessings are made to the sun or the polar star to conclude the ceremony.
Marriage in the Hindu faith is an alliance between two families (Goldburg, 2009, p.34). In the past marriages were arranged but in contemporary society couples are often guided by their parents or families rather than having their marriage arranged.
When a couple decides to get married a priest consults their horoscopes to ensure a good day for the ceremony, which normally takes place in the bride’s home.
On the wedding day the bride and groom are dressed elaborately, and the bride’s hands and feet are decorated with intricate patterns marked by henna.
The ceremony begins with prayers to Ganesha, and the bride’s family welcome the groom with flowers and perfumed water. The bride’s family also apply the tilak to the groom’s forehead. Once the ceremony begins the groom is brought forward to a specially decorated altar when he sits. He is offered a ritual drink of milk, ghee yoghurt and honey. The bride is then brought forward by her father and given to the groom. Gifts are exchanged and the priest lights the sacred fire. The couple make an offering as mantras are chanted.
The bride’s sari is then tied to the groom’s scarf. The couple exchange vows and offer rice to the sacred fire.
The bride steps on a stone to symbolise her willingness and strength to overcome any difficulties that may arise. The ritual comes to a climax when the bride and groom take seven steps around the sacred fire and recite prayers for food, power, prosperity, wisdom, children, health and friendship.
Barley is poured into the couple’s hand to symbolise that they will work together. The husband then marks the part in his wife’s hair with red powder as a sign that she is married.
Blessings are made to the sun or the polar star to conclude the ceremony.
Death
Death rituals vary in Hinduism depending on regions and family groups. A common feature across traditions is cremation of the body rather than burial.
The body of the deceased is bathed and dressed in new clothes by a person of the same gender. The body is placed on a pyre, usually beside a river. The feet of the dead person are pointed south towards the realm of the death god Yama.
The ashes of the deceased are then scattered into the river Ganges if possible.
The period of mourning for the deceased lasts for ten days, after which sixteen rice balls (pindas) are then put in places associated with the death; the place of death, where the body was laid, the path of the funeral procession, place of cremation, place where ashes were scattered (Goldburg, 2009, p.35).
At the end of the mourning period the chief mourner shaves, bathes and receives a new sacred thread.
Death rituals vary in Hinduism depending on regions and family groups. A common feature across traditions is cremation of the body rather than burial.
The body of the deceased is bathed and dressed in new clothes by a person of the same gender. The body is placed on a pyre, usually beside a river. The feet of the dead person are pointed south towards the realm of the death god Yama.
The ashes of the deceased are then scattered into the river Ganges if possible.
The period of mourning for the deceased lasts for ten days, after which sixteen rice balls (pindas) are then put in places associated with the death; the place of death, where the body was laid, the path of the funeral procession, place of cremation, place where ashes were scattered (Goldburg, 2009, p.35).
At the end of the mourning period the chief mourner shaves, bathes and receives a new sacred thread.
Sacred Text
The Vedas
These are the most ancient religious texts which define truth for Hindus. They were formed between 1200-200 BCE and were introduced to India by the Aryans. Hindus believe that the texts were received by scholars direct from God and passed on to the next generations by word of mouth.
Contents of the Vedas
Vedic texts are sometimes called shruti, which means hearing. For hundreds, maybe even thousands of years, the texts were passed on orally. The Vedas are made up of four compositions, and each veda in turn has four parts which are arranged chronologically.
•The Samhitas are the most ancient part of the Vedas, consisting of hymns of praise to God.
•The Brahmanas are rituals and prayers to guide the priests in their duties.
•The Aranyakas concern worship and meditation.
•The Upanishads consist of the mystical and philosophical teachings of Hinduism.
The Samhitas
•Rig-Veda Samhita (c. 1200 BCE) is the oldest of the four vedas and consists of 1028 hymns praising the ancient gods.
•Yajur-Veda Samhita is used as a handbook by priests performing the vedic sacrifices.
•Sama-Veda Samhita consists of chants and tunes for singing at the sacrifices.
•Atharva-Veda Samhita (c. 900 BCE) preserves many traditions which pre-date the Aryan influence and consists of spells, charms and magical formulae.
The Upanishads
The Upanishads developed from the Vedic tradition, but the texts reshaped Hinduism by providing believers with philosophical knowledge. The major Upanishads were largely composed between 800-200 BCE and are partly prose, partly verse. Later Upanishads continued to be composed right down to the 16th century. Originally they were in oral form.
The early Upanishads are concerned with understanding the sacrificial rites. Central to the Upanishads is the concept of brahman; the sacred power which informs reality.
Whilst the priests (brahmins) had previously been the ones who, through ritual and sacrifice, had restricted access to the divine, now the knowledge of the universe was open to those of the high and middle castes willing to learn from a teacher.
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita, or "Song of the Lord" is part of the sixth book of the Mahabharata, the world's longest poem. Composed between 500 BCE and 100 CE, the Mahabharata is an account of the wars of the house of Bharata.
It is one of the most popular Hindu texts and is known as a smriti text (the remembered tradition). This is considered by some to be of less importance than shruti (the heard text, such as the Vedas). It has, nevertheless, an important place within the Hindu tradition.
The Bhagavad Gita takes the form of a dialogue between prince Arjuna and Krishna, his charioteer. Arjuna is a warrior, about to join his brothers in a war between two branches of a royal family which would involve killing many of his friends and relatives. He wants to withdraw from the battle but Krishna teaches him that he, Arjuna, must do his duty in accordance with his class and he argues that death does not destroy the soul. Krishna points out that knowledge, work and devotion are all paths to salvation and that the central value in life is that of loyalty to God.
The Ramayana
Composed in the same period, the Ramayana is one of India's best known tales, and is written in 24,000 couplets. It tells the story of Prince Rama who was sent into exile in the forest with his wife, Sita, and his brother, Lakshamana. Sita was abducted by the evil demon Ravana but ultimately rescued by Prince Rama with the help of the Monkey God, Hanuman.
The symbolism of the story has been widely interpreted but basically is the story of good overcoming evil. Many people have said that it is a story about dharma or duty.
The Vedas
These are the most ancient religious texts which define truth for Hindus. They were formed between 1200-200 BCE and were introduced to India by the Aryans. Hindus believe that the texts were received by scholars direct from God and passed on to the next generations by word of mouth.
Contents of the Vedas
Vedic texts are sometimes called shruti, which means hearing. For hundreds, maybe even thousands of years, the texts were passed on orally. The Vedas are made up of four compositions, and each veda in turn has four parts which are arranged chronologically.
•The Samhitas are the most ancient part of the Vedas, consisting of hymns of praise to God.
•The Brahmanas are rituals and prayers to guide the priests in their duties.
•The Aranyakas concern worship and meditation.
•The Upanishads consist of the mystical and philosophical teachings of Hinduism.
The Samhitas
•Rig-Veda Samhita (c. 1200 BCE) is the oldest of the four vedas and consists of 1028 hymns praising the ancient gods.
•Yajur-Veda Samhita is used as a handbook by priests performing the vedic sacrifices.
•Sama-Veda Samhita consists of chants and tunes for singing at the sacrifices.
•Atharva-Veda Samhita (c. 900 BCE) preserves many traditions which pre-date the Aryan influence and consists of spells, charms and magical formulae.
The Upanishads
The Upanishads developed from the Vedic tradition, but the texts reshaped Hinduism by providing believers with philosophical knowledge. The major Upanishads were largely composed between 800-200 BCE and are partly prose, partly verse. Later Upanishads continued to be composed right down to the 16th century. Originally they were in oral form.
The early Upanishads are concerned with understanding the sacrificial rites. Central to the Upanishads is the concept of brahman; the sacred power which informs reality.
Whilst the priests (brahmins) had previously been the ones who, through ritual and sacrifice, had restricted access to the divine, now the knowledge of the universe was open to those of the high and middle castes willing to learn from a teacher.
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita, or "Song of the Lord" is part of the sixth book of the Mahabharata, the world's longest poem. Composed between 500 BCE and 100 CE, the Mahabharata is an account of the wars of the house of Bharata.
It is one of the most popular Hindu texts and is known as a smriti text (the remembered tradition). This is considered by some to be of less importance than shruti (the heard text, such as the Vedas). It has, nevertheless, an important place within the Hindu tradition.
The Bhagavad Gita takes the form of a dialogue between prince Arjuna and Krishna, his charioteer. Arjuna is a warrior, about to join his brothers in a war between two branches of a royal family which would involve killing many of his friends and relatives. He wants to withdraw from the battle but Krishna teaches him that he, Arjuna, must do his duty in accordance with his class and he argues that death does not destroy the soul. Krishna points out that knowledge, work and devotion are all paths to salvation and that the central value in life is that of loyalty to God.
The Ramayana
Composed in the same period, the Ramayana is one of India's best known tales, and is written in 24,000 couplets. It tells the story of Prince Rama who was sent into exile in the forest with his wife, Sita, and his brother, Lakshamana. Sita was abducted by the evil demon Ravana but ultimately rescued by Prince Rama with the help of the Monkey God, Hanuman.
The symbolism of the story has been widely interpreted but basically is the story of good overcoming evil. Many people have said that it is a story about dharma or duty.
References
Brisbane Catholic Education. 2011. Core Beliefs Hinduism. PPT
Brisbane Catholic Education. 2011. Rituals Hinduism. PPT
Brisbane Catholic Education. 2011. Sacred Text Hinduism. PPT
Flood, G. 2009. Hindu Concepts. [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/concepts/concepts_1.shtml
Goldburg, P. 2009. Investigating World Religions. Cambridge University Press: New York
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/texts/texts.shtml
Brisbane Catholic Education. 2011. Rituals Hinduism. PPT
Brisbane Catholic Education. 2011. Sacred Text Hinduism. PPT
Flood, G. 2009. Hindu Concepts. [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/concepts/concepts_1.shtml
Goldburg, P. 2009. Investigating World Religions. Cambridge University Press: New York
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/texts/texts.shtml